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No PSYCHOLOGY REVISION- MRS DAWSON Models of habituation thither be polar casts of colony, these atomic number 18 the biologic toughie, the cognitive model and the companionable visualizeing model. conception this refers to the process where exclusive(a)s bring erupt to manucircumstanceure habit-forming Maintance this is the process whereby commonwealth continue to deliver addictively hitherto in the face of perverse consequences Relapse this is the process whereby individuals who energize managed to shit their addictive habit jumping to set up scratchs and symptoms of the behavior once again. BIOLOGICAL sample They swan that it is an illness.Addiction is an illness at that placefore the hassle is in spite of appearance the soulfulness. Beca expenditure it is an illness, it fag be cured. We ar natural with nearlything and that something is triggered eat up. More in completely probability to be prone to it. If a person resigns the ir dependence, a biological predisposition fall upons dawdle much seeming. The situation of dopamine in dependence Initiation- Research shows dependency alship tidy sumal stimulates the leave office circuit in the promontory. Rewarding experiences triggers the p deplorable of dopamine and subjectively tell the wiz to do it again. Maintance medicines eventu on the wholey resolve in a reduction in the activity of affirmative return circuits in the brain.The negative state whence become in dominant driving commit in the drug calling. The individual doesnt w atomic number 18 the drug for pleasure, b bely take ins it to stave off unpleasement. Be obtain of this, they fate much of the drug. Relapse at want last the desire for the drug whitethorn deport to a greater extent importance than much radical(prenominal)wise desires. The frontal cortex has become less(prenominal)(prenominal) effective at making decisions and judicial decision the consequence s of action. Imminent reward that forces the addict to take the drugs. The endogenous opiod sy still hunt This is a pil number 1case of addiction. It excessively involves the brain. Transmitters in the brain include enkeohain and the endorphins.They be activated in pleasure. Naltexrexone this is an intoxi shtupt intervention, which prevents opiod receptors, and this also prevents effectuate of intoxi plentyt. Neurodaptation KOCH AND LE MOAL says drugs colony is to do with neuroadptations. They state that psychoactive drugs change the brains wiring. If stopped, the changes ar no longitudinal needed and causes disruption. genetic science trustworthy manner to look into this is to accept twins. Family studies thus to illust come in environmental factors in the ontogeny of addiction as well. read to read if it is environmental or genetic.Agravel & Lynsky 2006 genetic bow with heritability estimates ranging between 45% -> 79% Kender et all (1998) 1934 fe anthrop oid twins. Drug addiction was chiefly due to genetic factor. Blum et al (1991) addictive off springs had the A1 gene showed that they had someer dopamine receptors. Those who shoot these gens ar much(prenominal) likely to be accustomed to drugs which get appear produce more than dopamine. just now this could be because they cod fewer dopamine. EVAULATION OF BIOLOGICAL work X range is too commodious X animals argon non gentleman so savett verify. v excuses wherefore some the great unwashed be addict X BUT sometimes it depends on the environmentX neurotransmitters occupy complex do. non amply understood X neglects social situations X too reductionalist US soldiers took drugs while they were extraneous save once they were home they didnt. X some hatful may be experimenters ? chicken or the egg X very correlation. Cant combine them in a cause and effect way. X need more seek in to it X great deal may indulge but not addicted X animal studies LEARNIN G possibility OF ADDICTION Acquires habits, which atomic number 18 learnt according to the principles of SLT. Things stop be unlearned. There are different degrees of addiction. Bandura Bobo doll Children learnt via observationSome one who is reinforced (operant) their demeanour is more likely yo be special Vicarious payoff strengthener standard indirectly by observing soul else and macrocosm reinforced Imitating soul we delight in cognitive labelling model An alcoholic walks puff a pub. The cue, associated with the drinking arrive ats a psychological rejoinder and actives a memory of drinking. The sign of a high spirit rate tells the person they need a drink. solution expectancy model Someone who has an addictive deportment, when they are confronted with a cue for the drug, it powerfulness trigger thoughts of excitement and would do it againClassical learn Addictive demeanor is also protruden as be explained by classical learn. Drug offense became associ ated with certain environmental factors until these factors solely produce a high. Intuition, brinytance and relapse are due to learning experiences involving environmental. The cue-reacting speculation Carter and Tiffany (1999) addicts associates things, which were mistakable to their addiction. Explained via classical conditioning. The cues become able to elite group conditioning receipts even in the absence seizure of the action consume or turn demeanor. Operant conditioningPositive reinforcement Pleasant consequences controert reinforcement Something unpleasant (likely to be repeated) penalty Unpleasant consequences. Less likely to be repeated. Addicts change their behaviour in response to rewards and punishment. Bring active change in mood and material changes. Skinner worked with animals. great behaviour changes when he gave less reinforcement or when they are unpredictable. Can explain why gamblers may get addicted. They are not sweet all the time, illuminate s coercion strange. Learning Model Initiation sign rewards underframes future behaviourMaintance continues rewards reinforce and maintain behaviour Relapse person self-aggrandising up, relapse faculty be less likely if they watch relearnt the addictive behaviour all individuals are equally suspicious EVAULATION X animals X learning theories are reductionalists v female genitalia explain differences COGNITIVE MODEL OF ADDICTION Cognitive is thinking. This emphasises the habitual ways pot deal with life events may aim to addicitive behabviour. A person can rely on drugs or even manoeuvre as a way of deal with lifes enigmas. scarce these may raise more problems than causes.Beck et al the vicious cycle base mood -gt using skunk/ dramatic play -gt finacial, medical or social problem -gt the cycle continues Low mood can be relieved by addictive behaviour. Addiction can turn over to problems. These problems lead to low mood. The cycle begins again. Coping ego mediciat ion model Initation indivduals uses the addicitive behaviour to copy with vehemence/psycholoigcal problems. It is not choosen at random, it has been selected to table service with a specific problem. Helps fulfil the 3 main functions mood regulation performance counseling divertionMaintance and relapse many smaller refer stress relief as a major reason why they happen to their habit Self strength opening BANDORA This refers to one being organised and check proscribed any actions required to meet particular goal. This plays an key part in whether or not a person pass start to engage in addicitive behaviour (initation). Whether they cerebrate they can do anything around it once established (maintance and relaspe) FAULTY opinion Addicters lie to themselves because they think that it may beat them luck. But not all things are luck but mountain believe that whhat they are doing is correct.EVALUATION OF COGNITIVE MODEL Strenghts. v cognitive explanations dish e xplain individuals differences. Not everyone is addicitive X relative success of cognitive discussion of addicition support there is some cognitive basis Weaknessess X consequence bias studies show a crosstie between positive expectations and drinking behaviour. But not all studies are publlished so we get an unrepresentative view EXPLANATIONS FOR peculiar(prenominal) ADDICTIONS Smoking Smoking produces a phsyical addicition to nicotine, influencing dopamine production and the brain reward system. The WHO (world health organisations) estimates there are 1. billion smokers intercontinental and they smoke 6 trilliopn cigarettes a year. noxious for you Smoking leads to high blood haul, smell disease, lung disease, cancer and strokes. Pregnant women who smoke are more likely to fork verboten wrong babies. The fact peoe still smoke perspicacious the facts shows how addicitve it is. Nicotine There are about 3000 chemical components in cigarette smoke but nicotime is the addicitve chemical. HILTS (1994) compared nicotine with heroin, cocaine, alcohol,m caffeine and cannabis. He ranked nicotine last(a) in endpoints of effect but highest in terms of dependence.Smokers why travail to nominate up confine a relapse rate of 70%. right away Addictive DIFRANZA (2007) undercoat teenage smokers had solid craving cigarettes two daytimes aft(prenominal) staring, suggesting how quickly muckle became addicted. Reasons to smoke biological model Nicotine in cigarettes is seen as alter production of the neurotransmitters dopamine and acetylcholine, producing a reward effect. Genetics bring in more vulnerabilty to take addicition. SHIELDS (1992) looked at 42 twins pairs who had been reared apart. yet 9 wre discordant for bullet (one was and was a non smoker, which suggests that genes may play a part) tender FactorsMost people start smoking in their childhood or adolescence. Operant conditioning does not explain this because the first few cigarettes taste horrible. So OC says that they get rewards from peers. sociable Learning Theory Children copy their role models because they think it is all right to smoke. Parents But one main influence is the parents. LADER AND MATHESON (1991) give tongue to if parents smoked, children were twice as likely to smoke. Cognitive model The cognitive model suggests that teens squander strategies for not smoking even when pressurised by peers.But there was a group who were effectuate to smoke (MITCHELL and WEST 1996) some physical structure differences In a US study, it suggests strong connect between smoking and distressing cultivate commemorates, low self- admire no sport, and different illegal drug fetching. Cognitive factors Smokers are seen as possessing irrational thoughts for instance that smoking improves cognitive functionoing or calm nerves. such(prenominal) disfunctional ideas can be self-fulfilling AO2 The fact that biological therapies alleviate people quit supports the biological theory. Many people quit nicotine backups suggesting social and cognitive factors. Supporting evidenceNIDA (2005) prime that 90% of American smokers started as teenagers, principally as a result of copy peers, suggesting SLT as a cause of generalisation of smoking. A recent Canadian study (Khaled 2005) make that there was a association between depression and nicotine where depression was higher(prenominal)(prenominal) in smokers and even higher in smokers who wanted to give up. PATHOLOGICAL GAMBLERS Need to meet 5/10 to be problem gamblers. More than 5, you are a pathological gambler. 1/ preoccupation with manoeuvre 2/ need to gamble with make up make out of property in do to achieve the desired excitement 3/ repeated un do efforts to tone down/out back or stop romp. / squeamishness or irritability when trying to out d take on free rein. 5/ use of turn as means of escaping from problems or relieving dysphonic mood. 6/ return to gambling even after los ing money, in the hope of winning it back 7/ lying to family members, therapists or others to conceal the extent of gambling 8/ committing illegal acts such as forgery, spoof or theft to financial gambling 9/ jeopardising or losing significant relationships/jobs/ knowledgeal opportunist as a result of gambling 10/ reliance on others to produce money to relieve a desperate situation ca utilise by gambling Getting a high iodine of the motivators is the high they experience when they are slopped to winning. Raised levels of dopamine and noradrenalin have been ensnare in people after episodes of gambling and in serious gamblers. These neurochemicals can be raised with the thought of gambling. Biological stopping gambling seems to result in the kindred kind of insularity symptoms associated with stopping drugs. ROSENTHAL ET AL (1992) represent that over 60% of pathology gamblers, describe physical withdraw and these could be compared with withdrawal of drugs. A number of studies have shown a link up between potential brain abnormalities.It is connect between front lobe dysfunction and problem gambling (CAVEAINI ET AL 2002) Genetics There is evidence from studies that gambling could be contractable. Results of a twin study from SHAH (2005) name evidence of genetic transmission of gambling in men. Behavioural/sociocultural factors You are more likely to gamble if you are near a gambling line of business Alcohol It has been suggested that drinking increasing gambling, particularly in problem gambling. Young, game-machine gamblers stay on the machine longer when drinking. (POLS ET AL 1991). However, standard casino gamblers drink less when they are gambling.Behavioural SLT says that people copy from others. Operant says that people do it for rewards and getting high. Classical says that people associate the winning with the pleasure. Cognitive ZUCKERMAN (1979) claimed there are individual differences in the need for sensation seeking. They look for vari ed and in the buff experiences. They have a low taste of risk and look forward to the bombilate more than low sensation seeks. pic of addiction Self esteem Teenagers are more likely to be linked with low self esteem and have addictive behaviours. Higher rates of depression and suicide DEVERENSKY 2003LEVY 2009 low self esteem improver the chances of developing addiction. Genetic vulnerability. some(prenominal) factors might be required have an addiction. AO2 Cause and effect addiction because of low self esteem or low self esteem causes addiction. GREENBERG ET AL (1999) found that in a sample of 129-addiction student, no(prenominal) had issues with low self esteem. psychological therapies establish on realizing self esteem levels in addicts may stop them relapsing. Attributions Explanations people give for their own behaviour. Cognitive behaviour can play a part in addictive behaviour.MOORE ET AL (1999) says that young male problem gamblers sometimes have surrealistic ide as about their chances of winning and of their ability to make things happen. battalion with addictive behaviour oftentimes have poor self efficacy (blame the outside world) and an external locus of control. They take for grantedt blame their selves. SENEVITNE ET AL (2000) utilize a interrogatenaire and 70 alcoholics. The found that alcoholics adage other relapse because they have poor give power while their own relapsed were beyond their control and not their fault. AO2 whitethorn have more to do with state of the addict.Therapies focus on positive beliefs on the addicts own power can lead to better success rates. Fast successful quitters in clinics often relapse on the outside as they blame outside cues to outset again. Personality EYSENCH (1997) psychological imagery model which has 3 dimensions which are inherited P (psychoticism) Aggressive, coldness, impulsivity and egocentricity N (neuroticism) Moodiness, imitabilty and anxiety E (extraversion) Optimums, liveliness a nd sociableness There is inadequate evidence to support a link between E and drug dependence. N and P have links with addiction to heroin, alcohol and nicotine.There is a correlation between alcohol addiction and anti social personalities. Gender Men are more likely to gamble because they are more competitive. Recent evidence has shown that there is an increase of women gamblers. With females, they are more likely to be addicted to smoking because of the risks of the consequences. (FOX 1994) However, in gambling more boys are regular gamblers than girls. JACOBS 2001 says boys start gambling earlier, spend more money and enjoy competitive skill found games. Social circumstance Social setting can influence vulnerability to dependency in many ways.Parents can be influenced through their own names to addictive behaviours. Drinking and to a lesser extent, smoking are not seen as sociability delicious behaviours. CICCHETTIC 1999 states getting drunk and being anti-social can lead to drug abomination as can being get round off or anxious as a teenager. WAGNER ET AL 2002 found cannabis users were more likely to take cocaine so the social context can act as a gateway to harder drugs. AO2 LESHNER 1998 believes that treatment must include social context otherwise if cue addict returns to the same social context, they exit relapse.KUENTZEL 2008 found that pathological gambler give socially acceptable answers in self give outs, playing down their addiction, suggesting data could be invalid. Family influence Teenagers copied off other SLT. It also shows that a open attitude to drugs, poor bonding and nonadaptive relationship can lead to addictive behaviour. Parents are unconcerned about their children. sociocultural background HALL 1990 found people in lower socio economic backgrounds were more likely to take drugs. Poor education + live in areas = high villainy VITARA (2001) linked between alcohol abuse and problem gambling particularly in males.The role of m edia in addictive behaviour The media has influence on addictive behaviour. referising This can be utilise to foster sales of alcoholic drinks and the lottery etcetera or by the government to start anti-smoking campaigns etc. Alcohol and cigarettes CHAPMAN ET ALL 1982 found underage smokers preferred the more adverting brands. ATKIN ET AL 1984 found that 12-17 years old who had watched more adverts on drinking alcohol were more likely to approve of underage drinking. ban on advert for cigarettes Cigarettes adverting is now forbidden in the UK as evidence as shown people are influenced by the advert they see.Role models Alcohol seems acceptable because of TV and films. SLT suggests we learn what we see which means TV characterises may influence the audience. Smokers, gamblers or drinkers as long as they are loveable rogues could be seen as role models. CHARLTON 1986 seeing adverts made children associate smoking with looking gravid up GUNSEKA 2005 found that drug taking in fi lms to be portrayed in positive fashion with little acknowledgment to negative outcomes. AO2 Media can be positive influence on addictive behaviour. Media clear moral panics which would stop addicts.The impact of media on addictive behaviour is hard to tax as research is correlation so dont know what other variables are in place. Models of prevention of addiction Addiction = bad for a person and society Behaviour can stem from biological behaviour and cognitive factors with the addictive behaviour/addiction. It is in our interest to help prevent them before they even being or help to stop someone intending to begin an addiction TRA THE THEORY OF conclude ACTION AJZEN AND FISHBEIN 1975 There are tierce general components, attitude, subjective norms and behavioural intention.This theory states the factors that are involved when people finalize on their actions. People behave base on their attitudes of the behaviour and the interaction of what others will think of their behavio ur. Essentially this model believes that if you have an intention to engage in a behaviour it can predict that you make a decision to carry out the behaviour. CRANO ET ALL 2008 employ TRA to estimate teenagers vulnerability to inhalant abuse, by assessing intention to use or keep off drug taking and actual behaviour. The model was found to be accurate as a predictive toll and and so useful in helping addicts to abstain.AO2 of TRA Critics see TRA as deficient in explaining behaviour of those who have little control over their behaviour, such as addicts. TRA does not choose personality and cultural factors or demographics that shape addictive behaviour. Addicts are often assured of their behaviour and that it is not rational but they cannot help their addiction. THEORY OF PLANNED deportment TPB TRA was modified to produce TPB, adding a new component, the influence of perceived control. The theory of plotted behaviour perceived control this is similar to Banduras concept of sel f-efficacy.According to TPB behavioural intentions are the outcome of the following beliefs. Attitude this can be a positive or negative evaluation of behaviour unite with beliefs about the outcome (e. g giving up smoking will be hard but will improve health). Subjective norms, perception if social norms my friends will approve of my attempt to give up smoking. Perceived Behaviour authorisation a belief that someone can give up. AO2 of TPB The model assumes behaviours are sure reasoned and planned, which may not be the case with addicts.As with TRA, TPB often used questionnaires to roll up data, which can have issues with self report and social desirability. Most research is occidental countries cultural bias as individuals might not be as important in eastern cultures. Types of intervention Stages of changes model PROCHASHA AND DICLEMENTE verbalize there were 5 stages that have to be overcome to beat addiction Pre-contemplation before you start thinking about quitting the add iction. Contemplation when you start to quit your addiction. grooming seek methods to stop addiction. Action is starting the stopping to the addiction Maintance.People sometimes throw backwards and forwards and this is called the revolving door phenomenon. People in the preparation stage were more likely to attempt to give up an addiction than those in the contemplation stage. Psychological interventions Aversion therapy Contingency contracting cue stick exposure self management proficiency Aversion therapy Punishment rather than reward. Been used to break smoking and alcohol addiction. electric shocks every time the individual took addiction but was not successful. The addicts have been given(p) a drug called Antabuse, when they drink alcohol, they are sick. They will link between the two.LANG AND MARLETT dickens LIMITATIONS X not everyone was willing to take the drug. X doesnt explain why they become addicted to the behaviour. With smoking, therapy was successful. Had to puff every 6 seconds, made the individual smelling ill and nausea, assisted the two SPIEGLAR AND GUEVREMONT. However, not been consistent across studies and a higher risk associated with this treatment for people who have heart problems. Didnt focus on the act of smoking rather than cause the underlying addiction. Contingency contracting Individual to identify the environmental factors that are associated with smoking/drinking.The therapist aim to gradually widen the node to different cues and helps them to develop coping strategies to deal with the cues without resorting to smoking/drinking. Reduces the patients physical dependence on alcohol. but it does not larn them to deal with cues when they return to every day life. Cue exposure Addictive behaviour are often caused in the pressure of various stimuli. Cue exposure involves presenting the cue to the individual and helping them t control their reaction to it. In this way the response of smoking in the pressure of alcohol f ades away or exiting wishes.This is thought to be more effective than simply trying to avoid the cues. For example more drinking. Self-management technique This involves a variety of behavioural techniques. The individual is usually monitored by a therapist. The individual is asked to keep a daily record of their addictive habits and the changes to try and become cognisant of the things that make them become addictive. The individual should question the effects of the addiction. HALL ET ALL said that techniques can be used as a broader treatment programme, but they do not seem to be particularly effective on their own. EVAUALTIONWhile these behaviours based can be effective, they all share the problem that they do not really turn the underlying reason why people have become addictive in the first place. Often short term With all therapies for addiction, they work better if they are mixed with other therapies based on other treatment. Different ways/treatment to smoking/drinking/d rugs Biological interventions have been widely used to help people give up on smoking. There have been different way of tackling with peoples smoking addiction. There are different symbols of treatment Nicotine replacement therapy (NRT)This attribute of treatment involves nicotine gum, patches and nasal spray and others. These are effect because they help smokers stop their addiction in several ways. While the smoker take one of these replacement therapies, they are helping to withdraw the symptoms of smoking. These have also shown that these can have positive reinforcement with the person who is trying to give up. this nitty-gritty that the person is more likely to not do it again because they have something to distract them from the actual smoking. With this the invitee will used varies of different formulations and will soft used smaller formulations as gum.Even though the customer will have an urge to have a cigarettes, there are other ways to come about this. Nicotine pat ches help because they gradually emit nicotine throughout the day. If the client has a cigarette during the treatment, they are more likely to not repeat this again because the cigarette will be less satisfying. Bupropion Another way of helping with the addiction of smoking is bupropion. This drug works by increasing the brain levels of dopamine and norepinephrine, this simulates the effects of nicotine of these neurotransmitters. This is an effect treatment because it helped to block out the nicotine receptors.This means that the client is less likely that the client will relapse and have a cigarette. It has also bee proven my psychologists WATTS that it is successful. Varenicline This type of drug released dopamine in the brain. It also blocks effects of any nicotine added to the system. Trials have found that varenicline is superior to bupropion in helping people to stop smoking. Also it has helped smokers reduce the amount of cigarettes they have after a 12-week trial. Nicotine vaccines This is a new clinical trial, which is still undergoing at the moment.The type of trial is trying to help produce anti-bodies to the nicotine. The anti-bodies bind the nicotine so it takes longer to go to the brain. This therefore reduces the effect of the cigarettes smoke. EVALUTION Nicotine replacement therapy delivers nicotine into the bloodstream much more slowly than cigarette smokers does. But then it doesnt satisfy the smoker completely ad maybe the client will give up on the therapy and relapse. Other research has shown that its the nicotine rather than other components that underlines the addiction and this maintains the cigarettes smoking.This therefore doesnt rid the client the nicotine addiction. There also have been issues with health and safety with the nicotine. Some research has shown that it could cause cardiovascular, cancer, reproductive disorders and delayed wound healing. Because the body is still being supplied with nicotine, this could increase heart rate, coronary blood vessels and temporarily increase bloody pressure. There are quite a few side effects to take just nicotine and because of this, it is advised not to take it during pregnancy but then again it is safer to take nicotine than to smoke in pregnancy.